Minto-Morley Reforms (1909)

By 1909, there was seen a great deal of political consciousness amongst the Indians. Similarly, political parties like Indian National Congress and All Indian Muslim League had emerged. By then, the British were much influenced and affected by these political parties. As previous reforms and acts did not meet the political aspirations of all the Indians, the British realized that in order to introduce new reforms to impoverish the grievances of the Indians they needed to cater to these two political parties. Besides this, there were also other factors which led to the formation of Minto-Morley Reforms. In this context, the instance is the victory of Japan in the Russo-Japan War of 1904-5 can be cited as an example. This was a ray of hope for Indians that India could also become a great power.

On the other hand, the Liberal Party came to power in Britain in 1906, and that changed the political atmosphere. The Liberal Party did not want to pursue the autocratic policies of the Conservative Party. Such political changes in Britain and as well as in India, which altered the public opinion in both countries. Following are the salient features of Minto-Morley Reforms.

Salient Features of Minto-Morley Reforms:

The number of members of legislative council of Governor General and the Governors of various provinces was increased.
The powers of Members of Legislative were increased. They could now criticize the actions of the executive, ask questions and even supplementary questions, and express their views by moving resolutions. Matters of public interest were also discussed in the Legislative Council.
The Indians were included in the councils, where ultimate decisions were made, of the India Secretory and Viceroy. Before these reforms they were excluded from such councils. In fact, a type of consultative body was formed.
For the first time, the demand for a separate electorate was accepted. A constitutional recognition of Separate Electorate was a great achievement for the Muslims. Muslims could now have their own representative members at the Legislative Councils. They were to be elected by Muslims alone.
The Indians were not satisfied with these reforms. Although strict qualifications of property and education were imposed on franchise. Consequently, the number of voters was restricted. Moreover, a system of election was indirect. The members of local bodies were elected by the people who, in turn, were to elect members of electoral colleges. The members of electoral colleges were to elect members of Provincial Legislature who, in turn, were to elect members of Imperial Legislature.
In order to win the support of maximum factions of the society, the Government wanted to give special representation to the loyalist classes. In this context, a special representation was given to landlords, chambers of commerce and other influential.
The official majority in the Imperial Council was maintained. While the non-official majorities in the Provincial Council were nullified, as they included nominated members. Though, parliamentary reforms were introduced, there was no provision of responsibility.
Further, S.P. Sinha, an Indian, was included in the Viceroy’s Executive Council. However, this act was bitterly criticized by the Muslims, for they had previously demanded that two Indian members including one Muslim should be included in the Council. The Government promised to appoint Muslim the next time. After Sinha’s resignation, Sayed Ali Imam was appointed as a Member of the Executive Council.

The Minto-Morley Reforms drew a gloomy picture. Though, this act appeased some of the Indians, the majority was not satisfied with it. The result was widespread criticism of the Government. As a matter of fact, the Indian National Congress was divided into two factions i.e. the “moderate,” which was led by G.K. Gokhale and the “extremist,” which was led by B.G. Tilak. The moderate faction welcomed the Reforms. In the Imperial Legislative Council, Gokhale said, “My Lord, I sincerely believed that you and Lord Morley have saved the country from anarchy and chaos”. On other hand, the extremist faction rejected the act of 1909. They were not in the favor of the Reforms. It was because of its contradiction to Lord Morley’s dispatch dated November 27, 1908. On the contrary, the All India Muslim League welcomed the council act of 1909. The League passed a resolution, which offered cooperation with the government for the success of the Reforms, in the Delhi session on 1910.

In spite of all its demerits and flaws, the Reforms contributed and offered space for political development. The inclusion of the Indians in Councils was a great experience for the Indians. They became part of Legislative Councils. They could move resolutions, discuss Bills elaborately, and approved Bills. In this context, the instances are; 24 resolutions were accepted out of 168 in the Imperial Legislative Council, and 30 non-official amendments were presented in the Indian Factories Bill and 7 were approved. Further, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as a private member, also presented a Bill, Waqf-alal-Aulad, which was passed by the Council. In the constitutional evolution of India, the Act of 1909 was a decided step and opened the door for real politics.

The three Round Table Conference of 1930-1932?

Round Table Conferences were successful only to some extent. The Round Table Conferences were held in London in 1930, 1931 and 1932. But neither Gandhi nor Jinnah attended all of them.

The Round Table Conferences were held to consider the ‘Simon Commission Report’ and to suggest reforms to solve the constitutional problem of India. On the whole the Conferences did not achieve much and the constitutional problem was not resolved.

The First Round Table Conference (1930) was successful in the sense that it was agreed that Federal System of government would be adopted for India and responsible representative government would be set up in provinces. This was a great achievement because the Congress had suggested ’Unitary Form’ of government in provinces was a good step forward for self-rule. But Congress did not attend this conference because congress leaders were in jail on account of non-cooperation movement. 

Secondly, the princely states also agreed to join the federation. Also several committees were formed to discuss different issues.

The Second Round Table Conference (1931) was attended by the Congress with high hopes of progress. Mr. Gandhi represented the Congress but he declared that the Congress was the only political party which could speak for all the Indian people. He also declared that there was no minority problem in India. Muslims and other minority leaders did not agree with Mr. Gandhi. Therefore on account of Mr. Gandhi stubborn and unfair attitude the conference could not achieve much but its success was that it was declared that Orissa, NWFP and Sind (after separation from Bombay) would be given full provincial status. The minorities issue remained unresolved.  

The Third Round Table Conference was held in November 1932. It was again not attended by Congress. Mr. Jinnah also did not attend. The Conference proved to be a mere formality. It only finalized the reports and broke up without achieving anything of substance.

In the light of above facts, it can be said that although the Round Table Conference did not achieve much on the whole, yet the first conference of 1930 was more successful than the other two.

Simla Deputation (1905)

When Lord Minto was appointed as the Viceroy on India in 1905, new reforms were indicated in which the elected principle would be extended. The anti-partition agitation had convinced the Muslims of the futility of expecting any fair-play from the Hindu majority. Therefore, to safeguard their interests, the Muslim leaders drew up a plan for separate electorates for their community, and presented it to the Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla, on October 1, 1906.

Mr. Bilgrami wrote the text of the plan. The Simla Deputation consisted of 70 representatives, representing all opinions of the Muslim community, and headed by Sir Aga Khan who read the address. The long address said, among other things, that the position of the Muslim community should not be estimated by its numerical strength alone, but in terms of its political importance and services rendered to the Empire. He also pointed out that the representative institutions of the West were inappropriate for India and that their application was raising difficult problems. He stressed the need of utmost care while introducing or extending the electoral system in whatever sphere, be it municipal or provincial. He stated that the Muslims should be represented as a community.

The Viceroy in his reply to the Simla Deputation address reassured the Muslims that their political rights and interests as a community would be safeguarded by any administrative reorganization under him.

The acceptance of the Deputation’s demands proved to be a turning point in the history of the Sub-continent. For the first time, the Hindu-Muslim conflict was raised to the constitutional plane. The Muslims made it clear that they had no confidence in the Hindu majority and that they were not prepared to put their future in the hands of an assembly elected on the assumed basis of a homogenous Indian nation. It is in this sense that the beginning of separate electorate may be seen as the beginning of the realization of the Two-Nation Theory, its final and inevitable consequence being the partition of British India in 1947.

The Simla Deputation was successful because the Muslims were strongly urged to protect their separate identity, whereas the British responded to their demands, as Lord Minto was anxious to pull them out of their political discontent.

Separate electorates were given statutory recognition in the Indian Councils Act of 1909. Muslims were accorded not only the right to elect their representatives by separate electorates, but also the right to vote in general constituencies. In addition, they were also given weightage in representation.

Partition of Bengal (1905-11)

The partition of Bengal was the most important event during the rule of Lord Curzon. It was carried out mainly for the convenience of administration. Bengal in those days was the biggest province of India extending over 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million. It was comprising of Bengal, Behar and Orissa and was under the central of one lieutenant Governor. After Lord Curzon took charge as Governor General of India the discussion over the Partition began due to the following issues:

1.         Vastness of Province: The Province was spread over the area of 1, 89, 000 square miles with the population of 80 million, which was too vast to be managed by one lieutenant Governor. He could not make a tour for the whole province due to its vastness once in his tenure.

2.         Limited Sources of Communication: The sources of communication in the provinces were limited due to rivers and forests. The law and order condition of the provinces was also worst due to insufficient police and in-efficient management. Therefore the need of partition of province was felt severally.

3.         Difference of Language: There was also the difference of Languages and civilization of the natives of West Bengal and East Bengal. The natives of West Bengal considered themselves superior in civilization to the resident of East Bengal. The Condition demanded for the division of Provinces.

4.         Need of the time: The division of Bengal was the need of the time to develop trade in East Bengal and to promote the Port of Chittagong, which could be done only by division of the Provinces.

5.         Partition: The Partition of Bengal was thus calculated to restore efficiency in the Government and administration on one hand and encouraged local initiatives for progress and development on the other. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal and formed two new provinces of manageable size – East and West Bengal. East Bengal consisted of Dacca, Mamansingh, Assam, Kaula, Rangpur, and Bogra district, the Dacca was capital of East Bengal constituted a majority MuslimProvince, while the Bihar and Orissa constituted a separate province to be called as West Bengal with the capital of Calcutta and become the Hindu Majority provinces.

East Bengal contained a population of eighteen million Muslims and twelve million Hindus. Whereas West Bengal had a population fifty four million of which 42 million where Hindus and thus was the Hindu majority province.

Muslims’ Response

It received a favorable response from the Muslims. It was thought that it would bring the emancipation of Muslims socially and economically. The Muslims welcomed the Partition of Bengal for the following reasons:

1.         In the majority province of East Bengal the Muslims would be free from Hindu dominance in economic field. They would get opportunities of services and advancement of agriculture.

2.         The city of Dacca, where the Muslims were in majority was the centre of Muslim culture. In Dacca Muslims had a great chance of success for social and cultural advancement than in Calcutta.

3.         The Partition could result in political uplift and securing represent action in the Government.

4.         The partition of Bengal relieved the Muslims from competing with Hindus, who were more advanced in every field of life.

Hindus Response

The Hindus did not accept it, as it dealt a telling blow to their monopolies and exclusive hold on economic, social, Political life of the whole of Bengal. They called it as a deliberate attempt by British Government

1.         The Partition of Bengal had brightened the possibility of betterment of Muslims; while the Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders wanted status quo and to continue the exploitation of the Muslims.

2.         Hindu lawyers also reacted to the partition of Bengal because they thought that the new province would have its separate courts and thus their practice would be affected.

3.         Hindu press was not different from that of Hindu advocates. Hindus had their monopoly over almost whole of the province press. They were afraid that new newspapers would be established which would decrease their income naturally.

4.         The Hindus launched Swadeshi Movement whose sole purpose was to boycott of British goods.

Annulment of the Partition

When Lord Hardinage assumed charge as Governor General of India Hindus again became active and sent a representation to him for the annulment of partition of Bengal. He recommended the same to the British Prime Minister for Indian Affairs. On the occasion of the visiting His Majesty George V to Indo-Pakistan and holding of Darbar at Delhi on 12^th December 1911 the partition of Bengal was cancelled.

The united Bengal was placed under a Governor and Assam was placed under a Chief Commissioner. This decision was shattering blow to Muslims. It left them sullen and disillusioned. Their anger and indignation had widespread repercussions. The Muslims leaders and intelligentsia condemned the decision as betrayal of worst kind.

Conclusion

The Muslims of India had appreciated the step and started turning in the favour of the British but the British soon gave in against the mounting pressure of Hindus which helped the Muslims to realize the importance of standing on their feet and to organize themselves politically. It also affirmed the apprehension of Sir Syed that the Muslims might submerge in the majority of Hindus and lose their se

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

Minto-Morley reforms, introduced in 1909, proved unsatisfactory for Indian people. Resultantly, Indians demanded more representation and called for greater self-government. This could not be achieved without a formal rapprochement between Congress and Muslim League. The Lucknow Pact of 1916 removed the sole hurdle in the attainment of self rule by which both, Congress and Muslim League set aside their mutual differences and showed considerable accommodation to each other’s’ claims.

Meanwhile, the World War I had started and Indians despite their grievances and discontentment with the British joined the war with over one million soldiers with the hope that after the war British would be obliged to concede to self rule in recognition of their loyal services. However, as the war dragged on, Indians became disillusioned as the British did not make any promises regarding self government. Thus Indians pressed for immediate reforms and it was felt that a civil disobedience movement might be launched jointly by congress and Muslim league to compel the British to accelerate the reforms.

In view of these circumstances the British felt that something must be done to pacify the Indians. At that time, Edwin Montague was the Secretary of State for India. In his famous August Declaration presented before the House of Commons on 20^th August 1917, Montague said that in order to satisfy the local demands, his government was interested in giving more representation to the natives in India. Lord Chelmsford was sent to India as the new Governor General. He stayed for six months and held numerous meetings with different government and non-governmental people. Edwin Montague in collaboration with Lord Chelmsford collected data and made a report about constitutional reforms in 1918. The report was discussed in the House of Common and later it was approved by the parliament. The Bill was introduced in India in 1919 and became Act of 1919. This Act, commonly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, introduced the following reforms:

• The Council of the Secretary of State was to comprise of eight to twelve people. Three of them should be Indian, and at least half of them should have spent at least ten years in India.
• The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses, Upper House (Council of the State), and the Lower House (Legislative Assembly). Council of the State was to consist of 60 members, out of them 35 members would be elected and rest of them would be nominated by the Governor General. The Legislative Assembly was to consist of 144 members, out of them 103 were to be elected and 41 to be nominated by the Governor General. The duration of the Upper House was five and of the Lower House was three years.
• Powers were divided between the center and the provinces. The important subjects were vested with the center and unimportant remained with provinces. The important central subjects were defense, foreign affairs, custom, and relations with Indian states, currency and railway. On the contrary, unworthy provincial subjects were local self-government, public health, education etc.
• The salary of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid from British exchequer; previously, his salary was paid by Indian treasury.
• The system of ‘Diarchy’ or a kind of double government in the Provinces was introduced. Provincial subjects were divided into two categories “Transferred and Reserved.” Transferred subjects which were public health, education, local self-government, and agriculture were under the control of Minister; likewise all transferred subjects were unimportant. Reserved subjects included administration, police, land revenue etc. which were under the control of Governor with the help of his secretaries. It was indirect control over transferred department by reserved department. Hence, Governor was the head of transferred and reserved subjects.

Indian Constitutional Act of 1919 was passed to satisfy Indian people. On the contrary, Indian people opposed it because the Act went against Congress-League pact thus resulting in the Hindu opposition. Muslims partly accepted the Montague-Chelmsford reforms with certain reservations and demands regarding the safety of Muslim states. Gandhi categorically rejected this scheme and congress denounced it as inadequate, unsatisfactory and disappointing. Besides these problems, the events like Rowlatt act, the Jallianwal Bagh tragedy and Khilafat movement further aggravated the situation and doomed the reforms to failure. Thus, there erupted violent communal riots and anti-British agitations become frequent creating a disdain for British rule and Montague Chelmsford also failed as the two vanguard parties rejected its reforms and considered them to be unsatisfactory. The only point of the reforms appreciated by the Indian was that after ten years, a commission was to assess the reforms and to bring further improvement in them.

Why jinnah has produced fourteen points

• Jinnah decided to issue 14 points in response to Nehru Report (1928) which was a scheme of constitution for India. It included several points which were against Muslim interests. The Nehru Report suggested joint electorate (in place of separate electorate for Muslims), unitary form of government (in place of federal form of government) and Hindi as national language for India. These points were clearly against Muslim interests and were not liked by the Muslims.

• Jinnah suggested three amendments to the Nehru Report but these were rejected by the Congress. It clearly showed that the Congress was not sincere with the Muslims.

• At the annual meeting of Muslim League in March 1929 at Delhi. Jinnah gave his points in order to safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims. The 14 Points were the first ever demand of the Muslim League put to the British. These demands covered all aspects of Muslim interests at the time.